Introduction to Sociology: Classical Schools

We shall examine three major classical schools of thought: functionalism, Marxism and interactionism.

Functionalism

- Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons are the key thinkers.

a) Key points of the functionalist perspective may be summarised by a comparison drawn from biology.

- The human body as an organism is understood by examining the individual parts, such as the brain, lungs, heart and liver. To explain the individual parts in isolation of each other would be inadequate to understanding how life is maintained.

- The various parts of society are interrelated, and form a complete system. The family, religion and the police must be seen in relation to society as a whole. The parts contribute to the maintenance of the social system.

b) Society is structured by rules, regulations, norms and values. Values provide general guidelines which are translated into particular rules and norms. The structure of society is the sum of relationships governed by norms. The parts of society, its institutions (such as the police, education and the courts), are made of roles and norms.

c) The institutions are explained by their function in maintaining and reproducing the social system. Each institution has an effect on other parts of society, helping to ensure stability, social order and integration.

e.g., the family is a place of socialisation, where the ,members learn norms and values.

d) As society is made of parts, each part affects every other parts and the system as a whole. Given the division of labour in society, how is it possible that social order, cohesion, stability and integration occur?

- integration is based largely on value consensus, ideology shared by all members of society:

e.g., the value system of 'economic materialism' (including consumerism) integrates many parts of the Western society. The economy produces economic goods; education skills the workforce to be productive; the family consumes goods; and polity ensures competitive conditions and rising living standards.

- value consensus forms the basis of social unity and solidarity, as individuals identify and share same values with others. Common values produce common goals.

- Functionalists see value consensus as essential for order and stability of social system, and concern themselves with investigating the source of value consensus.

 

Marxism

- Karl Marx and C. Wright Mills are the key thinkers.

a) Human beings must produce food and material objects in order to survive. Production involves a technical component (forces of production) and social relationships of production, and these form the 'economic base', the infrastructure of society. The other aspects of society know as the 'superstructure' (including political, legal and value systems) are determined by economic factors.

b) All historical societies contain basic contradictions involving the exploitation of one social group by another:

e.g., slave societies - masters own their slaves;

feudalism - lords demand tribute from their serfs; and

capitalism - employers exploit their workers.

This conflict of interest must be resolved ultimately when the social system contains no more contradictions.

c) Many contradictions centre on the means of production, those parts of production that can be legally owned:

e.g., in slave societies, labour is one the means of production;

in feudal society, land is a major means; and

in capitalist society, factory and raw materials is owned, land is rented and labour hired.

Wealth (or total value) is produced only through labour power (i.e., workers). The capitalists appropriate much of this wealth in the form of profits. Wages are paid below the real value of production. The surplus value is taken by the capitalists, the owners of the means of production as their 'reward'. This is unfair exploitation of labour since the workers are deprived of wealth that they have produced.

The nature of the exploitation and the appropriation of wealth lie in the social nature of production and the private and individual nature of ownership. Hence, the conflict of interest between capital and labour cannot be resolved within the capitalist framework. Only under communism can this contradiction be resolved when the ownership of the means of production becomes collective and under the control of the workers.

d) Despite the internal contradictions, capitalism continues to survive. How is this possible?

The ruling class monopolises political power and the value system that support, protect and further its interests:

e.g., media control, religious beliefs and education.

Beliefs and values help to legitimate relations of production, justify the ruling class's power and privilege, and conceal the true basis of exploitation and oppression (i.e., dominance of the ruling class):

e.g., under feudalism, honour and loyalty were dominant concepts as well as 'natural' order of things; and

under capitalism, exploitation is disguised by ideas of equality and freedom.

Each epoch has its ruling class ideology. Ideology distorts reality and blinds members to the contradictions and conflicts of interest. They tend to accept their situation as normal and natural, right and proper. Yet, this is a 'false consciousness' that helps to maintain the system. However, this is only partially successful as the structural contradictions would prove too powerful and express themselves openly.

 

Interactionism

- Max Weber and Erving Goffman are the key thinkers.

a) Functionalism and Marxism share common characteristics:

- a general explanation of society as a whole; society is explained as a system; and

- human behaviour is shaped by social structures whether behaviour is governed by norms and values, or by economic relations and interests.

Interactionism focuses on small-scale interactions at the micro level, in which agents have a degree of control and flexibility in how social action occurs. Social action is a process.

b) Interactionism assumes that social action is meaningful and intended by those involved. Therefore, actors give meanings to their activities, and other actors have to successfully interpret these meanings so to understand each other and achieve completion of interaction.

e.g., in a war zone, soldiers surrendering themselves will put up their arms. Yet, in another context, this can be a sign of victory, as if scoring a goal. Yet in different context it can be interpreted as being tired or being frustrated or having disbelief. The soldiers must understand and interpret well the 'rules'.

Meanings are not fixed or pre-given, but can also be created, developed, changed and modified in the process of interaction.

e.g., in a new relationship with a partner, signs of affection and intimacy change during the course of the day, as each person perceive and define the situation differently: 'cold', 'warm' and 'hot' feelings.

c) Particular emphasis is placed on 'the self', and how actors present their selves to others, as they aim to impress upon others their thinking and intentions. Actors are at pains to manage their appearances, to hide humiliation, stigma or other defects. Conversely, to reveal pride, joy or other successes.

How do situations and selves come to have particular meanings or definitions? Actors construct meanings, and interactionists analyse how actors interpret language, gestures, appearance and others' manners and looks.

e.g., what is defined as deviant or bad, depends on how the public views particular people and actions. For instance, classifying criminals working class black youths, from the inner-city, using slang, listening to loud music, wearing unusual clothes, their posture and mannerism being arrogant.

However, interpretations change during interaction, as actors negotiate their meanings and intentions. And the black youths may convince the police and the public that they are law-abiding, and that the real criminals are those respectable white-collar workers in the suburbs. The black youths may promote images of themselves as high-spirited teenagers rather than malicious delinquents. Therefore, definitions and meanings are constructed in micro situations by a process of negotiation.

d) In interactionism, the concept of role is important. Whereas functionalists imply that roles are provided by the social system, and more or less clear in how to enact them, for interactionists roles are unclear, ambiguous and vague. This lack of clarity provides actors with considerable room for negotiation, manoeuvre and creative action. What matters is how roles as general guidelines for action are employed in particular situations.

e.g., the roles of husbands and wife are fluid and changeable, as both actors negotiate their roles through period of happiness, sadness and ill-health.

Interactionists investigate how actors perceive their contexts and roles, and their understanding of the self as a process of negotiation.