Introduction to Sociology: The State

 

We shall examine three approaches to the state.

 

Consider the following statements:

- Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as ‘government of the people by the people for the people.

- Anonymous: ‘The Establishment governs the society!’

- Marx & Engels wrote, ‘The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.’

 

Approaches to the State

a) Pluralism/Liberalism

- Robert Dahl and Alexis de Tocqueville

This approach argues that the state in Western democracies acts in the public interest, according to the wishes of the citizens. It also argues that the exercise of power must be based upon the acceptance and cooperation of the population to be legitimate (e.g., through general and local elections); coercive power is illegitimate.

The Pluralists consider the state as a neutral and liberal mediator, which takes into account the conflicting demands made upon it by different sections of the society. The state mediates between the different groups, ensuring that all of them have some influence on government policy. It is an inclusive style of governing; for example, public inquiries are set up to consult with the general public on issues such as education policy, major economic investments and social legislation.

 

b) Elite Theory

- C. Wright Mills and Vilfredo Pareto

Elite rule occurs because those individuals who are at the top of social, economic and political institutions largely monopolise power. In the US, the key institutions are major corporations, the military and the government. Those who occupy the command posts in these institutions form the three elite groups. The interests and activities of the elites are sufficiently similar and interconnected to form a single ruling majority; i.e., the power elite.

e.g., American capitalism is partly based on military expenditure, where the generals serve in the government and corporations.

The result of the coincidence of economic, military and political power is a power elite that dominates the society, and takes all decisions of major national and international importance; e.g., the Iraq War (for oil?).

The cohesiveness and unity of the power elite is strengthened by the similarity of the social background of its members and the interchange and overlapping of the personnel between the three elites. They share similar religion and education, attend the same clubs, live in the capital city, and share similar values, so that they have a basis for mutual trust and cooperation (a chief executive officer can easily slide into national politics, and vice versa).

The population is largely passive, controlled by the power elite, which subjects the public to instruments of control and manipulation (e.g., the media and ideology). Often, the public are less concerned by major issues of the day, and more pre-occupied by issues affecting their personal world (work, the family, leisure and neighbourhood) – ‘bread and circus’ style of governance.

 

c) Marxism

- Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas

Marxists put primary emphasis upon economic resources as a source of power. The means of production are owned and controlled by the ruling class, and this provides the basis of its dominance. The political system (superstructure) is shaped to meet the needs of the economic structure (base). The state appears to be operating in the interests of the society, but in reality it serves the interests of the capitalist class.

e.g., ‘national interest’ becomes defined as the need for businesses to make profits and compete internationally.

The simplest way the state controls the subject class (i.e., the working class) is through the use of force and coercion; e.g., the police, prisons and the army are used to repress the exploited members of society – the Coal Miners’ Strike in 1984. In more advanced societies, the state employs less coercive tools. In democratic states, in theory, everyone has equal influence over public policy, and the political system and the social order are perceived as fair, just and legitimate, where the state reflects the wishes of the population. Here, the authority of the state is accepted. But, in reality, democracy is an illusion. The real power continues to rest with the owners of the means of production, the capitalists.

One way in which the ruling class ensures that the state continues to act in its interest is through corruption and bribery; e.g., payments to politicians. Another way is through the use of the capitalists’ financial power: the state needs to borrow money from the bourgeoisie to meet its debts (to pay for the public budget deficit). Loans can be withheld if the state refuses to follow economic and industrial policies beneficial to the bourgeois class.

Neo-Marxists (such as Poulantzas) argue that different groups of capitalists may conflict over the policy they wish the state to pursue. Therefore, the state acts with partial independence of the sectional capitalist interests (such as agriculture, car industry, defence sector and the financial city). It has relative autonomy from the ruling class, and this serves the long term interests of capital because;

i) the state can arbitrate between the often competing interests of different groups of capitalists;

ii) the state makes concessions (e.g., social benefits) to the working class and this reduces social tensions; and

iii) the state intervenes directly in the economy which helps economic competitiveness and growth, though often this is opposed by sectional capitalists.

Antonio Gramsci argues that the bourgeoisie exercise hegemony in the capitalist society because their ideas and values are dominant and that through them they are able to persuade other groups to consent to their rule. The ruling class can only maintain its hegemonic rule through alliances of different groups or power blocs. Gramsci also argues that the non-economic part of society comprises:

i) civil society, which consists of institutions of rule by consent; e.g., political parties, the mass media, trade unions, religion and education;

ii) political society, which consist of institutions of rule by force; e.g., the army and the police.

The state is made up of political and civil society, and consists of everyday life which helps to sustain the ideology of the dominant class.