A quantum cosmic mind discovery

Preface

Prior to developing the account below I had a long-term interest in the evidence and interpretations of quantum physics and cosmological theory. While I think what was always at the back of my mind was the universal question How is any natural organisation of matter possible given just the action of the forces or fundamental interactions as they have been described?

Or the problem could be put it this way: The most strongly supported theory of the origin of universe as whole says that it started in an explosion of particles. While the only universal causes that science generally recognise at present are a few push or pull causes called forces. But could the universe evolve into the galaxies of stars and planetary systems, and atoms molecules and living organisms including trees and human beings given only the action of such causes? Would there not need to act a further cause or causes of a different kind to explain how the universe has evolved into and remains in this particular form?

This account is the result of about twenty years work, on and off, in considering the relationship between quantum physics and other natural evidence, and was initially inspired by reading an article in the New Scientist in 1982 that reported on a quantum physics experiment carried out by a team of French scientists led by Alain Aspect.

It seemed to me that the 'nonlocal' effects of the 'entanglement' of the behaviour of photons and subatomic particles that this and other experiments were able to detect implied the action of an organising cause with properties that would be quite distinct from those of all the forces. While the key questions for developing any theory of such a cause and its effects were how could such a cause be clearly represented? and where else in the natural world could there be found clear evidence of its action and effects?

I am not a qualified scientist, but you may find reasons from the following article to conclude that this theory would be unlikely to have been developed by a professional scientist in any case. Particular reasons for this are scientific specialisation, the conflicting ways in which quantum physics has been interpreted - with the first most widely accepted interpretation insisting on the impossibility of any theoretical development beyond the observable and measurable quantum evidence - the necessarily non-mathematical initial development of the whole argument that the following account presents, and the very large initial assumptions needed before this development was possible.

The fact that I am only an amateur may not sound very promising. But here I do stick just to the consistently confirmed evidence of the modern natural sciences and widely accepted theories derived from this evidence, and use ordinary largely non-technical and entirely non-metaphysical language.

I would also very much appreciate any constructive comments on this article, as well as any offer of collaboration in developing the theory further from anyone who can see a definite way of doing so.

Please contact Andrew Daw at merlinwood@merlinwood.free-online.co.uk


CONTENTS

1 Introduction

2 Quantum entanglement, atoms, molecules and living organisms

2.1 The problem of the natural organisation of matter and radiant energy

2.2 A cause of natural organisation? - The quantum evidence

3 Quantum wave behaviour and the evidence of astronomy and cosmology

3.1 Quantum wave behaviour explained?

3.2 Towards a cosmology and astrophysics of the forces and a nonlocal vortical cause

3.2.1 The formation and form of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, globular clusters and planetary systems

3.2.2 The physics of stars

4 The mind as a nonlocal form conserving cause?

5 Summary

6 Conclusions

7 References

8 Web links

1 Introduction

This account is proposed as a universal theory of matter and energy. But it is not a so-called 'Theory of Everything' involving complex mathematics that seeks a single unified explanation of the known forces. Rather, here the basic premise is that what could explain a great deal in the natural world would be a comparative examination of a wide range of natural evidence including, most crucially, that found of matter and radiant energy on the smallest scale and of, in particular, quantum wave behaviour and entanglement. And what could be deduced and sufficiently justified only from this combined evidence would be enough details of a distinct cause that could only be described from its effects as it acts in addition to the known forces.

To justify the development of this causal theory relationships are found between the quantum evidence and that of astronomical findings, and astrophysical and cosmological theory, and living organisms. Although this account requires the use of diagrams to represent the action of the cause, it is in nature of the evidence examined that, in the first instance, the development of this causal account needs to be entirely non-mathematical. But it is considered that the astrophysics and cosmology could be further developed and supported by measurement and calculation that is beyond capacity of this author.

The following account could be longer, but I doubt whether it will be widely accepted as a valid theory by the scientific community unless or until a further development, involving measurement and calculation and the examination of further evidence, supports the cosmological and astrophysical theory.

2 Quantum entanglement, atoms, molecules and living organisms

2.1 The problem of the natural organisation of matter and radiant energy

The findings of modern science can be considered to indicate that all has been discovered of what the world consists universally. For it seems that everything - including all light and other radiant energy, the Earth's atmosphere and all visible forms inanimate matter, human beings and all other living organisms, the planets, the sun, all other stars and all galaxies (including any theoretically postulated dark matter and energy) - is made just of certain kinds of natural parts, and four forces that act at a distance.

But the evidence also indicates that matter consists almost all the space between its subatomic parts; all inanimate matter is of various and particular forms called elements and compounds; living organisms are composed of the same subatomic parts as inanimate matter; and three forces act universally within matter which can only be measured to have certain invariable general properties as they surround the subatomic parts of matter, and are essentially causes that act by pushing or pulling objects. Hence the question could be asked: How can matter be and remain in all its various natural forms and composed out of its subatomic parts while the forces act just as they could be measured and described from any direct evidence of their effect?

Just from the quantum evidence the problem of the natural organisation of matter can also be encapsulated in two factors that are described in the Schrödinger equation to explain the orbital of the electron. These are the electromagnetic, or more accurately, the electrostatic charge as the attractive force between the electron and the atomic nucleus, and the wave function of the electron. So that details are described of the action and effect of the charge force as it surrounds the protons in the nucleus and electron. While the wave function can also be described from electrons after travelling through space and freed from the attraction of the nucleus, and with each electron travelling apparently freely one at a time through space. So it can be concluded that the wave property of electrons is not produced by the electromagnetic force either while they are freely travelling or as component parts of atoms. Also, moreover, under the same kind of experimental conditions such wave properties can be detected and described of freely travelling protons, neutrons and even atoms and
small molecules.

It is the wave behaviour of electrons which can be said to prevent them from falling into the nucleus, and thus to keep all forms of matter from falling in on itself in what has been called an ultraviolet catastrophe. So electrons could be measured to remain only at certain energy levels around the atomic nucleus because of the electrons’ standing wave properties, while each energy level represents only a whole number of standing waves.

Thus it can be thought essential to any sufficiently justified theory of natural organisation that quantum behaviour is explained in enough detail. Although only all the evidence examined together here - which includes that of living organisms and astronomical findings - is considered enough to justify the existence and sufficiently detailed nature of a further cause that can only be described from its effects. While it may be insisted that for the theory to be definitely accepted the cosmological and astronomical theory needs to be developed further and supported by more observational research and findings of the kind that has been suggested below.


2.2 A cause of natural organisation? - The quantum evidence

From any of the quantum evidence alone it can seem that nothing can be sufficiently justified and described of any cause acting in addition to the forces. So the experimental findings can be considered of effects occurring in addition to those of the forces, which are the result of what has been called quantum entanglement.[1] This evidence can be thought to indicate that such effects occur at any distance between objects without varying in any way, and have thus been described as nonlocal, while these effects have no measurable strength. An experiment has been carried out upon photons where the components were measured to produce such effects when they were 1,500 metres apart. [For reports on other nonlocality experiment see web links at the end of this article].

From the quantum evidence no direct evidence can be found of nonlocal effects upon objects in motion, and from this alone the effects need not be thought to occur at all in the world beyond the experimental findings. But it can be considered that quantum entanglement needs to be described to explain how the behaviour of photons and subatomic particles are naturally organised as composites. So the effects of entanglement can be said to occur because photons and subatomic particles can remain in certain organised forms of motion.

A simple example of quantum entanglement between matter particles is that of hydrogen atoms where the nucleus, which consists of a single part called the proton, could be described as being related to its single orbiting electron with respect to their behaviour that has been called spin. Like the wave behaviour of particles their spin could not be described as being like any observable behaviour of objects. So that, rather than possessing continually varying rates and directions of spin, subatomic particles could only be described as possessing certain fixed values. While the only directions of the particles have been called spin up and spin down.

In the case of the hydrogen atom the electron and proton could be measured as being related to each other in that they always need to have the same direction of spin. Hence if one component changes direction then so will the other, and the relationship never occurs where one particle is spin up and the other spin down. Any change in spin direction of one component therefore always results in a corresponding change in the other.

Figure 1

The effect that occurs when a component object in this relationship is measured would thus result from the other component adjusting itself to maintain a particular organised relationship of behaviour between the components. Quantum entanglement would thus be a form of natural organisation of object behaviour that resists the effects of the force or forces involved in measurement The behaviour of particles of the nucleus and of the electrons of more complex atoms can also be described as entangled, and the Pauli exclusion principle describes how the component electrons of the atoms of all the elements need to be composed only in a certain way to explain their different chemical properties. While by considering all that the evidence indicates to be composed in a certain way of subatomic parts, it could be wondered whether a nonlocal cause could act upon all atoms, molecules and living organisms so that they remain in their forms and composed of these
parts.

In the 17th Century, Newton discovered an invisible cause that acts at a distance where before it could be thought nothing could be found or described. This discovery required, firstly, the discovery of the motion of objects that was unlike anything that was known before. And then these findings of bodies in orbital motion needed to be examined together with a different kind of evidence that was found elsewhere, that of objects that do not remain in orbit.

In the early 20th century evidence was found of matter and radiant energy on the smallest scale where the behaviour of objects could be described as being unlike any that was known before; and also, effects that occur at a distance between such objects that are unlike those of any force. These findings concerned objects that include subatomic particles, or what could be regarded as the universal constituents of matter in all its forms including living organisms.

So in 1935 Albert Einstein et al, by way of a critique of quantum mechanics, had a paper published[2] that pointed out that certain of the evidence described of the behaviour of subatomic particles implied a 'spooky action at a distance' between objects. The effects of this action would not be like those of any force since it seemed that they could occur without varying at any distance between objects. Einstein argued that this feature meant that the quantum mechanics that had been developed largely by Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Pauli and Dirac was an incomplete description of particle behaviour. Whereas a further development of quantum theory would explain the findings in classical terms of a local action and so eliminate its current implications.

However, experiments carried out in the 1970's and 80's at least strongly supported the existence of the action at a distance as the quantum mechanics implied, the effects being described as nonlocal. Although it can still be considered that the quantum mechanics which Einstein criticised, is incomplete because systematic nonlocal theories have since been developed. Even so, for various reasons, many physicists are still sceptical about nonlocal theories. One reason is that the orthodox mechanics has worked for all practical purposes, while the mathematics of the nonlocal mechanics is more complex.

Another reason is the argument that a nonlocal causal theory requires too many indemonstrable assumptions, while Occam's razor demands a valid hypothesis should make the least such assumptions. Although a counter-argument could insist that a valid hypothesis should make just as many and no more assumptions as are required for it to be developed into a more detailed theory by examining further natural evidence. So the requirement of theoretical simplicity should not override a reasonable assumption that there could be further findings that serve to support or confirm the theory or hypothesis.

Hence two quantum accounts that could be said to make fewer assumptions than a nonlocal causal hypothesis are called the Many Worlds (MWI)[3] and Transactional Interpretations (TI)[4]. But MWI requires there to be many other worlds of which it could be asked whether there could really be any genuinely practicable means of clearly confirming the existence of any such worlds anywhere. While TI requires there to be reverse causation with respect to quantum behaviour, and it could be thought that any means of supporting a quantum hypothesis would require further natural evidence to be examined in the observable larger scale world.

Whereas in the macro-world, at least, causes always coincide with or are followed by effects. While for a hypothesis to be considered workable one could ask for specific additional evidence by which it could be further justified and strong enough initial reasons from this other evidence for considering that the hypothesis could be supported and developed. (Although in the case of the quantum evidence such associations with other natural evidence that are considered here may be easily thought too distant to contemplate for the development of a systematic theory).

So against a simple Occam’s razor argument it could be maintained that the limitations and uniqueness of the quantum evidence require a workable hypothesis to make more than the least number of initial assumptions. Some reasons have already been given above to consider that a nonlocal cause could act in the natural world on the larger scale. Moreover, it could be deduced that to develop a sufficiently detailed hypothesis requires even more assumptions than in present nonlocal causal interpretations. Hence although the de Broglie-Bohm causal theory has now been developed in much mathematical detail in describing the hidden behaviour of quantum objects in motion, and especially by Peter R. Holland,[5] it is arguable that the nonlocal cause of this behaviour – called the quantum potential in this theory - is not described in adequate detail.

So that, rather than describing, as in other interpretations, quantum objects while travelling as neither waves nor particles or either waves or particles, the de Broglie-Bohm interpretation proposes that they are both waves and particles. The wave property is extended indefinitely in space as it travels in association with each particle. This description would thus explain, in particular, the double slit interference experiment by describing each single particle as being able to produce its own interference after travelling through either one or other of the two slits in a barrier. While the mathematics and computer generated diagrams derived from this mathematics show that it is possible to describe definite trajectories for travelling particles and represent waves that are consistent with the observed evidence. It is also possible to picture what the path of a single particle-wave would look like as it travels freely from its source, as in figure 2.

Figure 2

Hence, also, the de Broglie-Bohm causal quantum theory recognises that the nonlocal cause of wave behaviour and quantum entanglement needs to act in Hilbert space or extra spatial dimensions. For, unlike the forces that act at a distance, a cause that acts at any distance without varying in its effects upon objects cannot be described as surrounding them in three dimensional space. Nor could any barrier placed between entangled objects alter the effect. So it can only be concluded that any such cause would act outside the three experienced dimensions of space.

While here it is considered that, although further spatial dimensions could not be pictured directly, a cause acting in a fourth dimension can be pictured as a three dimensional cause acting upon objects in a two dimensional world, and even in two-dimensions acting upon a one-dimensional world as in figure 3.

Figure 3

However, this diagram cannot differentiate between individual composites. Whereas each particle composite of a given type could be regarded as being acted upon by a single causal system, and so that each composite is causally separate from all others in three-dimensional space.

Figure 4

 


Since each type of composite has a different overall form, this representation can then suggest that there should somehow be a different type of cause for each composite type so these types are each causally separate from the others. And it can be found that single unifying cause acting in two extra dimensions of space is sufficient to produce and maintain the form of the simple wave and spin behaviour of particles and all particle composites including living organisms.

 

This causal structure then allows the different types of composites, including atom and molecules, to be explained by each being acted upon by a different and separate 'sub-cause' acting in a fourth dimension. While these causes are themselves acted upon by a single cause acting from a fifth dimension so as to conserve the form of all sub-causes. So that the following single diagram can represent such a cause acting in two further dimensions of space.


Figure 5


3 Quantum wave behaviour and the evidence of astronomy and cosmology

3.1 Quantum wave behaviour explained?

Then it could be supposed that if such a cause acts universally together with the three forces that can act at a distance largely within matter, and it can act without varying in its effects at any distance, might it not also act together with the force of
gravity?

So these are initial reasons think that the quantum evidence may also be related by way of a nonlocal cause to cosmological theory and the astronomical evidence. While, first of all, it could be wondered whether there could be some universal, nonlocal causal property of space that would produce, in particular, a wave form of behaviour in quantum objects. And just as it has been described here as acting on atoms, molecules and living organisms, this could be visualised as a single cause acting universally from a fourth dimension of space. One property the cause would need to possess is that which explains how, as quantum objects increase in energy or momentum, they decrease in wavelength and increase in wave frequency. This is unlike any property of large-scale waves involving masses of matter, where the larger the waves the greater is its energy.

Yet there is just one kind of large-scale physical situation, which is not generally viewed as a cause of wave behaviour, but where objects could be said to behave in most respects like quantum objects if these are considered as particles with wave forms of behaviour while they are in motion. This is where objects travel in a vortex - such as a whirlpool, whirlwind or tornado - and where a fluid increases in energy the nearer it is to the vortical centre. So that if seen from side-on along the length of a vortex, visible objects caught up in it can be observed to travel in a wave form of motion, and increase in speed and energy where the 'wave' or oscillation of objects diminishes in size as it nears the central point to which all the matter in the vortex tends.

Then, while there is no direct evidence of what would need to be a universally acting vortical cause of quantum wave behaviour in the presently observable world, the overall form of the very early universe can be imagined. That is, given that it had an explosive or Big Bang beginning. So there is now a detailed and well-attested theory of how the universe began as an explosion or inflation of particles. While this initial expansion can be visualised as the particles moving out against the inwardly attracting force of gravity produced by the particles themselves. Hence, just as projectiles such as rockets travelling out into space against the Earth's gravity do not move in straight lines but take a spiral course, so too would all the particles in an explosively expanding universe moving out against its own gravity.

Thus the form of the early universe could be described as three-dimensional outwardly radiating spherical vortex of particles. While it could be thought that, unlike other kinds of vortex, such a vortex of particles could rotate in two directions at once, clockwise and anticlockwise, there being no influence upon which way the particles would be inclined to move, and by being outwardly radiating, the particles could make room to travel outwardly in opposite directions. A simple representation of a one directional vortex and the two directional vortex of the early universe is pictured in figure 6.

Figure 6

Then the vortex can be imagined as acting as a single cause from a fourth spatial dimension in the same way as the cause acts upon the quantum composites. Hence three-dimensional space can be conceived as being pervaded by spherical causal vortices produced by a single universal vortical cause, and so would produce the wave behaviour of all quantum objects as visualised in two dimensions in Figure 6.

Figure 7

 

In three-dimensional space it could be thought that the particle travelling through the vortices would trigger other vortices laterally all around the particle and thus produce an extended wave formation. While longer particle waves would have lower energy, and travel further out from the centres of the vortices than shorter waves. In the case of photons it need not be thought that these are particles as such, but as wave-like energetic fluctuations in and through the medium of the causal vortices, and that are also confined to points of energy by the action of the causal vortex. These points of energy only exist while and because they are in motion relative to the causal medium, and thus they are measured to have zero mass at rest.

That the vortices are spherical could explain the various kinds of polarisation of radiant energy. So circular and elliptical polarisation could be visualised as travelling points of energy being rotated by the lateral spherical action of the cause while producing its wave behaviour. While the two-directional vortex allows for two directions of circular or elliptical polarisation and of spin, in accordance with the quantum mechanical description. Also, only a two-directional vortex could allow quantum objects to travel in all directions in space.

It may be asked how is it that the particle can continue to travel in a particular direction or trajectory if it is affected by a cause that acts in contrary directions? To which the reply could be that the particle continues to travel in virtue of its initial and continuing momentum in a particular direction. So if the vortical cause exerts an equal push in opposite directions then these influences will cancel each other out, while at the outset the travelling particle possesses its own momentum and trajectory in addition to the causal influences. While, as the Compton effect shows, even photons can be described as behaving like particles with momentum.

A problem could also be thought to arise in explaining how the particles so consistently maintain a constant wavelength. So it may said that long wave low energy particles in motion would get caught up in the high energy causation nearer to the centres of the vortices. But then firstly, this cause can be described as possessing a universal and intrinsic form conserving property that could maintain the wave length of any particle that starts out with a specific energy or momentum, and secondly it should be remembered that the particles are moving through an outwardly radiating vortical causation that would therefore counterbalance the tendency for large wave particle motion or oscillations to become smaller.

The cause of the wave behaviour being the expanding universe also resolves a problem of photons travelling in wave forms of motion. So whereas the straight-line speed of photons will be that of light, by travelling in wave paths their actual speed through space would need to be faster. While such speeds can be accounted for when it is considered that for the universe to expand against the force of gravity the outermost particles would need to travel at faster than the speed of light. For otherwise the early universe, rather than expanding, would have behaved like a contracting black hole. Although at the same time it can be considered that the straight-line expansion in the diameter of the universe could be at the speed of light so that this would account for the universal straight-line velocity of radiation.

Moreover, the action of the vortical cause could explain the existence of particles since the effect of the centre of such a cause could be to act so as to confine energy into particles and conserve their forms. While such a cause could also be considered to be of a nature that it could produce the property of quantum behaviour that is called spin, and which would have a fixed value. Although it is more difficult to deduce how the cause could produce the particular different universal kinds of particle (i.e. photons, electrons, protons etc) that are found naturally.

But the theory of a vortical cause producing the wave forms of motion of particles further supports the theory that the further cause maintains particular forms of natural organisation, and so that there would need to be a separate sub-cause for each type of composite form of radiant energy and matter.


3.2 Towards a cosmology and astrophysics of the forces and a vortical cause

3.2.1 The formation and form of clusters of galaxies, galaxies, globular clusters and planetary systems

Then the effect can be considered of a universal vortical form producing and conserving cause upon masses of atoms and molecules on a large scale in the formation of galaxies, stars and planets.

So, first of all, the thought could be that, because the causal vortices derive from the expanding universe their influence could radiate out indefinitely. While this is indicated to some degree by the fact that there are radio waves with wavelengths that can be measured in kilometres. Thus further justification and development of the theory can be sought from present cosmological theory and the observable astronomical evidence.

To start with the widely accepted and most well founded cosmological account of the evolution of the universe can be considered. This describes the earliest stages as an explosion or inflation just of photons and subatomic (or at least non-atomic) particles. The material particles very quickly forming into the kinds that are presently detected in the natural world. Then after a much longer period of some 300,000 years the temperature and energy density of the universe reduces sufficiently to allow the formation of the simplest two elements, namely hydrogen and helium. This matter is then considered to collect into vast clouds out of which the galaxies of stars condense due to the action of gravity alone.

There is an initial problem, however, of how a rapidly expanding universe of atomic matter could form itself into the galaxies given the weakness of the force of gravity. Whereas the additional effect may be considered of a vortical cause upon atomic matter on the large scale. So that a vortical causal theory could be thought not only to explain how the atomic matter collected together into galaxies and stars but also how so many of the galaxies are spiral in form: a vortical cause naturally producing a spiral out of the gaseous matter in the process of forming a galaxy. Also, it could be thought how a vortical cause would produce the rotation of galaxies. The cosmic vortex could also have produced planetary systems and the orbital motion of planets. These systems are not spiral in formation but this would be because the much stronger effect of gravity would cancel out any measurable effect of the vortical cause upon planetary orbital motion..

This theory gives rise to two problems. One is that if the early universe was a two directional vortex, why is it that all spiral galaxies are one directional? And if the cause acts universally why are galaxies not (almost) all spiral? So up to 77% of all visible galaxies can be described as spiral in form. But a survey of galaxies closest to our own found that if the smaller or dwarf galaxies are included only around 30% are spiral, and probably the majority are elliptical with no discernable spiral features.

Here the answer to the first question is rather speculative. Whereas the solution to the second problem leads to a theory that in quite simple terms explains the evolution of all galaxies with a distinct type of formation.

Hence the thought could be that to produce both quantum wave behaviour and spirals in galaxies the universal vortex would need to be two-directional initially and then become one-directional. One could assume that this change would have come about as the result of an overall change in the early universe The change would need to have occurred once the universe was larger than about ten kilometres across, or wider than the longest radio waves.

However, the change to a one directional vortex need not have occurred until the universe was less than the diameter of the smallest planetary orbit. Given that the diameter of the universe was expanding at the speed of light at this time, according to current Big Bang theory there was one overall process of change that started to occur when the early universe was about 30,000,000 kilometres across, and so would be well within the orbital diameter of the planet Mercury. This was nucleosynthesis whereby the first atomic nuclei were formed.

The additional action of the vortical cause would allow for two ways in which galaxies could form. For the first stars could begin to form in relative isolation and as soon as atomic matter first emerged when this was at its densest, and then the vortical cause plus gravity collected these stars together to form galaxies. Such galaxies would not be spiral since the effect of the vortical cause would not be strong enough to form spirals out of collections of massive stars. Whereas those galaxies where the stars formed after galactic size clouds were collected by the weaker vortical cause would have evolved at a later stage when the atomic matter was less dense, and these could have formed into spiral galaxies.

The second most commonly observed type of galaxy, and probably more common than the spiral if dwarf galaxies are included, is described as elliptical, and these are globular and flattened to varying degrees in overall form, and have no spiral arms. While apart from their form they have two other distinguishing features that can be explained by the stellar rather than gaseous process of galactic formation. So that while spiral galaxies still possess masses of visible gaseous matter, much less or no such matter can be observed in ellipticals. While spiral galaxies are measured to rotate much faster than ellipticals. And this would be the case because the vortical cause could rotate spirals in their initial light gaseous state at a faster rate than galaxies that are already formed out of massive stars.

There is also a galactic type that has been called lenticular and, like spirals, lenticulars are lens or disc shaped but, like ellipticals, has no spiral arms and little or no visible gaseous matter. The vortical theory could explain this type if these initially formed as small ellipticals out of already condensed stars, and then over time collected additional ready-formed stars around their rims.

Another distinct kind of galaxy is the atypical spiral form called the barred spiral. Here it is thought that the central dense and luminous bar could be produced if elliptical galaxies of largely already formed stars gathered gaseous matter around where they are largest in diameter. So that, while the central body of the galaxy would remain elliptical, spiral arms would form just out of the gaseous rim and rotate faster than the central body of the galaxy. The size of the bar relative to the spiral arms varies considerably amongst these galaxies, indicating their varying proportions of accumulated peripheral matter that was initially gaseous.

The remaining types of galaxies are called irregular and peculiar, while the formation of these could concur with existing theories that they result from collisions between galaxies or highly explosive disturbances within them.

There are also collections of stars called globular clusters, which are much smaller than galaxies although they may contain up to a million stars. Most of these clusters are observed around and separate from galaxies. The ones around the Milky Way galaxy contain some of the oldest stars in the galaxy and little or no visible gaseous matter. According to the vortical causal theory globular clusters could be collections of the remainder of ready-formed separate stars that were not collected into elliptical and lenticular galaxies. And then the globulars were eventually collected by the vortical cause and gravitationally attracted towards galaxies.

When considering the presently observed properties of galaxies a problem has arisen in explaining the galactic motion of the stars they contain. So, like the planets in the solar system, the stars in galaxies orbit around a massive centre. But the planets and all other bodies in the solar system orbit at a faster rate the nearer they are to the more massive body they orbit around. And this is consistent with the action of the force of gravity that increases in strength of its attraction at a certain rate the closer objects are together. Whereas stars and other visible matter in galaxies behave more as though they are parts of a solid body of matter, and this needs to be the case for spiral galaxies to retain their overall forms. So that stars move more slowly the nearer they are to the centre of galaxies.

Thus theories of dark matter have been developed in an attempt to explain this behaviour of stars. Such matter could be in the form of large-scale objects such as small dim or burnt out stars and highly dense remnants of stars called black holes. But there is strong evidence to indicate that there could not be enough of such matter in the universe. While it has also been proposed that there is dark matter in the form of exotic non-reflecting particles that have yet to be detected by any means.

However, one objection to dark matter theory is that galaxies vary considerably in the overall density of their visible matter. So that some spirals have more open and tenuous spiral arms whereas others are much more compact with their arms so close together that they are barely distinguishable. While for the less dense galaxies to maintain their visible forms would require a greater proportion of dark matter than the denser kinds. Thus it could be asked how is it that for all kinds of spiral galaxies there would be just the right proportion of visible to dark matter for them to remain in their spiral forms? Also, moreover, it can be considered that, if anything, the less dense the galaxy is the smaller the amount of dark matter it would attract and retain by gravitation.

Whereas only the action of a form conserving vortical cause could explain in a single theory both how it is that there are spiral and other galaxies in the first instance and how they remain in their forms despite the force of gravity. And so in just this respect stars as parts of a galaxy could be described as behaving like electrons in an atom, except that the outermost stars are prevented from moving outwards and away from galaxies, whereas the cause prevents electrons from falling inwards towards the nucleus. Another difference is that there is no evidence to indicate that the various kinds of galaxies require the action of a fifth dimensional cause to maintain their various forms.

The formation of planetary systems would also involve the action of the further cause. Although because of the large masses of the sun, planets and other objects and thus the strength of gravity between them relative to the size of the solar system as compared to stars in galaxies, all objects behave in accordance with the laws of gravity as measured. . Hence observations have indicated that stars form at the centres of disc shaped rotating masses, while beyond the disc centres planets could form and orbit around the stars. Although the solar system does resemble the spirals of galaxies to the extent that the orbits of the planets (apart from Pluto) increase in distance from one another outwardly from the sun. Also, the cause could explain the formation of the rings around the large planets, such as Saturn in particular.


3.2.2 The physics of stars

Given that the cause perpetuates the motion of subatomic particles in atoms and molecules in spite of the electromagnetic force, it could also have a continuous effect upon the motion of masses of particles within the stars that the cause also helped to form, and so could generate additional stellar energy. So too it could be thought that a cause that can produce spirals of stars that can remain in this form in spite of the force of gravity could also produce vortical motion in the plasma of stars in spite of this force. While this could, in the first instance, explain the observed highly active surface of the sun that can produce vast explosions called coronal mass ejections, and also the great heat of the corona.

There are also outstanding problems concerning stellar evolution that may be solved by a vortical causal theory. So that, firstly, there have been found stars that present theory suggests are older than the universe itself. This could be explained if, as a result of the additional vortical effect, these stars aged at a faster rate than the present theory predicts.

Then there is the problem of the lack of a particular type or population of stars that is predicted according to current astrophysical theory. So by spectrographic analysis two populations of stars have been distinguished. Population II stars having been formed earlier and are made up of the simplest and lightest elements (although they do contain very small amounts of heavier elements), and population I stars, which include the sun, and which are considered to be younger and formed in part out of matter produced by population II stars, and these contain the heavier elements in higher proportions than in population II stars. While it is currently predicted that there should be population III stars, which would be the earliest, first generation of stars, and would contain no elements heavier than helium, but these have yet to be found.

This anomaly could be explained if at an early stage the additional effect of the vortical cause was to produce the heavier elements within population II stars. So the production of these elements requires high energy levels that, according to current theory, could only be produced in the late stages of the more massive stars when they collapse. Whereas it could be thought that in the process of their formation, and when the effect of gravity was lower because the stellar matter would be less dense, the required energy level could have been achieved by the less gravitationally restricted action of the vortical cause upon the matter of the proto-star.

Given that the vortical cause could produce such additional energy within stars, there is then the possibility that a vortical effect could be that there are some stars that will not, as predicted, run out of energy and become stars of the kind that have been called red giants, and which are then predicted to shrink under the force of their own gravity into white dwarves. Red giants and white dwarves have been found, but it may be the case that only stars within a certain restricted mass range can perpetuate their energy generation.

Thus it has already been calculated that the lifecycles of stars vary a great deal according to their varying mass. So that, because of the stronger effect of gravity that produces more energy within them, the lives of all much more massive stars than the sun are shorter before they collapse under their own gravity. Whereas much smaller stars, that is, those of considerably less mass than the sun, do not possess the strength of gravity to produce the amount of energy that is radiated by more massive stars. While amongst the stars of intermediate mass could be those where the strength of gravity is enough to create the prolonged and energetic fusion reactions, but is not strong enough to prevent sufficient energy being produced by the vortical cause.

Also, stars that are able to perpetuate their energy generation may be emerging in the process of the evolution of the universe. Hence there is the possibility that the vortical cause could perpetuate energy only in population I stars. For such stars that contain more of the heavier elements may be the only kind that have sufficient momentum within them for the vortical cause to perpetuate energy production.

That the vortical effect may only be sufficient to perpetuate energy production within a restricted stellar mass range suggests a gradual process of energy change over time in stars within this range. So that as such a star loses mass by radiating the energy produced by fusion reactions the vortical effect would become stronger due to the weakening effect of gravity. The star could then eventually achieve an equilibrium state where the energy produced by the vortical effect is equal to the energy that is radiated, so that the star no longer loses mass.

The energy produced by the vortical cause could be perpetuated because, unlike any other source it would not result from any irreversible change due to reactions in matter but could considered as a self-generated churning action in the plasma within stars.

The above hypothesis could be supported if a survey and analysis of red giant stars and white dwarf showed that there are no or fewer population I stars, at least, of these kinds within a certain mass range than are at present predicted theoretically. While there may be found a similar but less marked anomaly amongst population II stars if these do not perpetuate their energy production but last longer than predicted.

If the cause acts upon stars and whole galaxies then it could act on a larger scale and dark matter has also needed to be evoked to explain the motion of galaxies in galactic clusters. So too it can be thought that the outward action of the vortical cause on (virtually) empty space could produce the vast voids where no galaxies have be observed and that can be hundreds of millions of light years across.

The cause could also be responsible for the recently measured acceleration in the expansion of the universe. Some physicists have suggested that this increase in the speed of expansion is only apparent, and is due to a deceleration in the speed of light. While I considered whether a faster light speed might explain the high energy of the most distant of all visible objects that are called quasars, and why still higher energies are not measured from birth of stars in nearby starburst galaxies. However, the above explanation of radiant energy indicates that the speed of light should be perpetually constant. And it was concluded that the vortical cause would produce the highest energies near to the centre of new born stars, so that the outer less energetic matter of the stars would prevent the highest energies being detected from any new stars.

Finally, if the nonlocal vortical cause acts within voids and upon clusters of galaxies then it could act upon the universe as a whole. So that even if the cosmos is presently expanding at an accelerating rate then it need not do so indefinitely. While its outwardly acting property would prevent the universe from ever collapsing in on itself, just as the cause prevents the electrons in an atom falling into the nucleus.

Thus it is considered here that a detailed cosmology could be developed that would explain the astronomical evidence as resulting from the action of the forces together with a nonlocal vortical cause. So that a single theory could be constructed that would explain more of the observed evidence in more detail and with more consistency than any present theory and, unlike the theory of living organisms, it is considered that the cosmological and astrophysical theory should be supportable by measurement and calculation.

4 The mind as a natural form conserving cause of living organisms?

The nonlocal effects discovered on the smallest scale could be described where objects that include subatomic particles are said to be entangled into composites of object behaviour. Atoms, molecules and living organisms could all be described as particle composites, and so where an invisible nonlocal cause could act. And there could be said to be an invisible feature of all living organisms that may be universally described as that which has the sensitivity by which organisms respond to their environment, and which human beings call their minds, selves or souls.

There are long standing problems concerning the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. So there are our experiences of the world and our bodies that experience, and much has now been found of what occurs in the body which can be related to what we experience. But nothing can be directly observed or detected from the body of this experience itself. While it can be thought that there should be something distinct from the body that uniquely has or is the subject of this experience. But there is nothing that can even be indirectly detected from the body of this experiencing subject. So that what may be said of the mind has usually been considered not to be the concern of the natural sciences largely because it seems, at
least, no scientific or objective examination could even indicate that it exists at all.

However, the question may be asked: could other natural evidence be examined apart from any of living organisms lead to the discovery of the true nature of the mind? So, in the first instance, it could be pointed out that examinations of enough natural evidence have led to the discovery of the existence and nature of invisible forces. And all these discoveries have been made only after some of the evidence needing to be examined has been found by experiment, measurement and calculation. Although one could also suppose that a scientific discovery concerning the mind would be quite different in nature to those that have been made of the forces.

In addition to those given above, another initial reason for thinking that the minds or sensing subjects could be parts of a nonlocal cause is that the sensitivity of living organisms can be accounted for by considering that a cause with effects that organisms remain in their organised forms could be impinged upon, and thus be sensitive to external stimuli that produces physical changes in the organism, including stimuli which act so as to disrupt its form. So that perceptions, physical pain etc. could be the result of this impingement upon an invisible form conserving and organising cause as the experiencing subject of the organism. While in the case of multi-celled animals this sensitivity is confined to the specialist cells of the nervous system, including in all but the simplest of multi-celled animals, the brain.

But a crucial question can be asked: Is there any clear evidence that the minds or subjects of living organisms including human beings are parts of a nonlocal, universally acting and form maintaining cause? To which here the reply is: having devised a diagrammatic means of representing such a cause acting upon all particle composites, yes there is. While there can be found two ways of approaching this question, and both of which are here related to problems of mind that have been considered at length in the Western tradition of philosophy.

So, firstly, it can be pointed out that the idea of the mind as an invisible cause is by no means new, the first definite record of this conception being in the writings of Plato in around 400 BC. Then the last major ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, developed the idea into a systematic theory or metaphysics of the mind as an invisible cause amongst other universal causes. But there was found to be one seemingly insoluble problem concerning the idea of the mind as anything distinct and invisible,
including that of the 16th century philosopher Rene Descartes of the mind as an immaterial substance. So it could be asked How may anything invisible or immaterial be identified as many different minds in many individuals?

Philosophers have attempted various solutions with no clear success. And it is now widely considered that the mind is in some way a physical part of the brain. While, having discovered four invisible causes that the evidence indicates to act universally as forces that act at a distance, it can be pointed out that only one each of these can be described.

What of a nonlocal cause, however? Well, by representing such a cause as acting from additional spatial dimensions, this could be described as one cause outside the three spatial dimensions experienced, but many causes within these dimensions. So just in the three dimensions of space experienced it seems that minds would have to be many things in the bodies of living organisms, and thus could not be distinct and invisible. Whereas the mind as a single, nonlocal and extra-dimensional cause does allow for organisms with many unique and separate identities while being just one entity for each species in one additional spatial dimension. That is, just as an archipelago of islands in the sea can all be described as parts of one land surface in three dimensions of space but only as many separate objects on a two dimensional map.

Then a second way of finding evidence of mind as a nonlocal cause is to consider the problem of the physical division of one conscious individual into two conscious individuals. Thus it may be thought that any organism can only have one unique point of view on the world, and yet single cell organisms reproduce by division. Such organisms include amoebae, which can be readily observed to behave as independent individuals who respond to their own immediate environments and so
can each be thought to require a single individual sensitivity in order to survive. And one can imagine being an amoeba in the process of dividing into two and wonder how it is that one does not, as the result of this division have two points of view on the world at once. Or, alternatively, it is possible to conceive of a surgical operation whereby the brain of one individual human or other animal is divided in two and transplanted into two living but brain dead individuals. So that, in principle at least, the experience of one individual could become the experiences of two individuals, as could be pictured in figure 7.


Figure 8

Thus there is a paradox here where it seems from the subjective point of view that an individual organism should, as the result of physical division into two have two different viewpoints on the world at once, but in objective reality it is only reasonable to think that each experiences just from either one or other of the subsequent bodies.

Hence the question could be asked: what is it that makes the experience of the individual organism necessarily singular while its body or the experiencing part of its body is not so since it can be divided? And to which a nonlocal causal theory has the same answer as that to the problem of many minds. So that minds are only plural in the world experienced, while in all dimensions of space there is just one collective mind. For each individual always, even after physical division, only possesses one viewpoint because there is only one mind which all individuals of a species share, and are separate minds only in the three spatial dimensions we experience of the world as in figure 8


Figure 9

In addition to its extra-dimensional features there is another universal property that can be described of the cause. Thus a cause with effects that matter remains in its forms can be described as form conserving. And with this property it can be explained how living organisms with individual and species survival behaviour evolved from inanimate matter.

So while the cause acts statically upon dead matter, when material composites evolve that have a finite lifetime and organic sensitivity to the environment the cause produces form conserving or survival behaviour both in individuals and collectively through reproduction. The sub-cause for each species thus acts universally so as to perpetuate its species form. In species of higher animals species form conserving behaviour includes the protection of other members of the species as in parental and communal activity. While in humans the action of the cause explains moral feelings, language and behaviour, which may be described as universally form conserving, and also accounts for beliefs in God.

The existence of the cause as the minds of human beings also makes sense of moral or altruistic behaviour in terms of the self-interest of the individual. So the mind as a permanent and singular species cause means that the experience of all members of a species survive death in the birth of new species members. And hence actions that conserve the form of other members of the species are in the best long-term interests of the agents.


4. Summary

The thesis that applies universally in this article is quite simple and yet can be easily disregarded in present physics, this is that once all the details of the known forces are described there is nothing to explain how matter and the energy it radiates is and can remain in its naturally organised forms.

The problem of natural organisation became most apparent when the evidence was found of matter on the smallest scale of atoms and molecules, but can also be applied to all living organisms. Although it was also obscured by the earliest mathematical methodologies and most widely accepted original interpretation of the quantum mechanics that described this evidence. So that what could be emphasised as peculiar about this evidence was its uncertain and probabilistic nature.

Whereas here the question of how natural organisation is possible is emphasised not only when applied to photons of radiant energy and the smallest or subatomic parts of matter but also of the universe on the large scale, and in particular to the galaxies of stars.

Yet it is very easy to conclude that, once the subatomic parts of matter, the photons of radiant energy and all the known forces have been described these are all that the world is and could be made of and all of what could cause anything to occur. While to begin an argument against this conclusion it is asked: what of a cause of effects that have been described as occurring from certain behaviour of subatomic particles and photons, these being effects for which no strength could measured and could be considered not to vary in any way at any distance between objects, so that their cause could not be described as surrounding objects; while its effects have only been detected where relationships of behaviour acre described as being maintained by ‘entanglement’ between or amongst component objects?

So in the account below it is initially assumed that:

From these assumptions and other experimental evidence it was deduced
that:

So it was thought that the overall form of the early universe would be of an outwardly radiating spherical vortex of particles as they travel against the action of gravity. While via a 4th dimensional cause this would result in 3 dimensional space being pervaded with causal vortices in essentially the same way that cause acts upon all of a given composite type. Such vortices would decrease in energy with increasing radius and so explain how quantum objects reduce in energy with increasing wavelength. As the particles travel through this causal medium it could trigger vortices laterally around it and so produce an extended wave property, and is thus consistent with the nonlocal causal interpretation of the evidence of quantum interference and refraction.

Unlike other natural vortices, by being outwardly radiating, the universal vortex could have been two directional, and this would allow particles to travel in all directions and explain the two directions of circular polarisation and of spin.

When considering the astronomical and cosmological evidence it could be assumed that the vortical causes radiate out to an indefinite size (the longest radio waves being evidence of their effects on an intermediate scale). While it was asked whether and how such a cause could act together with the force of gravity firstly to produce the evolution and presently observed form of the universe on the scale of galaxies and clusters of galaxies.

So this theory would replace those of exotic (i.e. non-baryonic) ‘dark matter’ and, more recently, ‘dark energy’ which have been evoked to explain both the evolution and presently observed form and behaviour of galaxies and stars in galaxies, although such matter and energy has yet to be directly detected by any means.

Dark matter and energy has been introduced to account for how the universe is ‘flat’ or has no curvature, how clusters of galaxies are being pushed apart, how galaxies were formed in the early universe, the motion of some galaxies in relation to one another and how stars - and other visible matter - rotate in galaxies so that they do not move at a faster rate towards the galactic centre, and so spiral galaxies remain in their spiral form.

Whereas here it is considered that there are limitations to any dark matter or energy theory. Thus it could be asked whether gravity could have any detectable effect in an early expanding universe that consisted just of particulate matter of any kind or quantity and, when considering the wide variety of spiral galaxies, it could wondered why there should be in all cases just the right amount of dark matter for them to remain in their forms.

A nonlocal vortical cause, by contrast, could have produced initial fluctuations in particulate matter where gravity had no detectable effect, and where there was no dark matter. It could also form this matter into rotating spiral formations. Spiral galaxies are one-directional but it is thought that the overall changes in the constituents of the early universe (such as the destruction of antimatter) may have changed its form into a one directional vortex.

Moreover, to explain the non-spiral elliptical and lenticular galaxies, which can also distinguished from spirals by possessing much less or no gaseous matter and being more slowly rotating, it can be considered that, while spirals evolved from galactic size clouds of gaseous matter, ellipticals and lenticulars are collections of ready formed stars that were born in relative isolation. So these slower spinning, non spiral forms are such because the vortical cause could neither rotate massive stars as fast nor form them into spirals.

Barred spirals are thought to be ellipticals where gaseous matter has formed around their rims and globular clusters are mini-ellipticals that have been attracted towards larger galaxies. While the motion of stars, globular clusters and other matter in all rotating galaxies ca be said to result from nonlocal form conserving vortical causes.

All the motion of galaxies in clusters that are presently explained by dark matter could result from the action of the further cause, and the outwardly radiating property of the cause acting in virtually empty space could account for the voids between galactic clusters and the accelerating expansion of the universe as a whole. The possibility was considered that the absence of population III stars could be evidence that the vortical cause had a stronger effect in the early smaller universe then the speed of light could be slowing down as the Universe expands, as it has already been suggested by some astronomers. In which case the accelerating expansion is only apparent. Also, quasars may then be explained as being highly energetic early starburst galaxies.

However, given the above explanation of quantum wave behaviour, reasons could found to conclude that the speed of light would not vary over time. Instead it was considered that energies high enough to produce the heavier metals in population II stars were generated by the vortical cause only near their centres where gravity would be weakest, and this high energy would thus be shielded from detection by the less energetic outer matter of the stars themselves.

When considering the formation and subsequent physics of stars firstly it is thought that the high energy produced by starburst galaxies, which is regarded as resulting from the simultaneous formation of many stars, is evidence of the action of the further cause. Then it was asked whether a cause that contributes to the formation of stars could also contribute continually towards their energy production. While the evidence for this is:

Finally, reasons are found to consider that there is evidence of the further cause
acting upon organisms as living particle composites. These reasons are:

It is found that the problems of how there can be many minds that are distinct
and invisible entities and how the mind of the individual remains singular are resolved
if minds are represented as parts of a extra-dimensional form conserving sub-cause
that is singular for each species. So that such a mind can be represented by the
same diagram as that for atoms.

Species and universal form conserving behaviour and morality can be explained
as being in the interests of the individual because, by the mind being singular for
each species all individuals’ experience of the world survives beyond death in the
‘rebirth’ as the experience of further members of the same species.


5 Conclusions

Here it is believed that enough evidence has been examined together to find and sufficiently justify, and a means found to represent enough details of a cause so as to clearly indicate that it acts universally in addition to the known forces. So that this cause has been described to explain how matter and the energy can be and remain in its naturally organised forms and forms of motion while the known forces act just as they have been generally described within or upon matter and radiant energy.
While reasons have been found to consider that this cause acts constantly both on the small scale and together with the atomic forces, and on the large scale upon stars and galaxies especially together with gravity.

This is a theory that could be expanded and developed further in all the areas covered here, but especially with regard to the astronomical evidence where there could be further findings and the development of a single detailed cosmology to provide additional support for the overall theory, and involve measurement and calculation.


6 References

[1] For tests confirming the unique properties of nonlocal effects on subatomic
particles see e.g. M. Lamehi-Rachti and W. Mittig, (1976). Quantum mechanics and
hidden variables: a test of Bell's inequality by the measurement of spin correlation in
low-energy proton-proton scattering, Physical Review, S14, 2543-55. For such tests
upon light see e.g. Alain Aspect, Philippe Grangier, Gerard Roger, (1982).
Experimental test of Bell's inequalities using time varying analysers. Physical Review
Letters, 49, 1804.

[2] Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen; Can quantum-mechanical
description of reality be considered complete? (1935) Physical Review 47, 777-80.

[3] Hugh Everett; "Relative state" formulation of quantum mechanics (1957);
Reviews of Modern Physics, 29, 454-462.

[4] John G. Cramer, The Transactional Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics
(1986), Reviews of Modern Physics, 27, 227.

[5] Peter R. Holland, The Quantum Theory of Motion (1993), Cambridge
University Press.


7 Web links

A ‘beginner’s’ website on quantum entanglement with further broadly relevant
references at:

http://www.joot.com/dave/writings/articles/entanglement/

A brief Physics News Update report (1998) on nonlocality experiments at:

http://www.aip.org/enews/physnews/1998/physnews.399.htm

A largely non-technical potted biography of John Stuart Bell who devised Bell's Theorem and inequalities, and of how he thus made possible all experimental tests
for locality/nonlocality at:

http://www.physicsweb.org/article/world/11/12/8/

More technically detailed papers on further and more recent nonlocality
experiments can be found by a web search entitled 'Bell inequality experiments'.

J. G. Cramer's own homepage on his Transactional Interpretation of quantum
mechanics can be found at:

http://faculty.washington.edu/jcramer/

return to contents


View Stats
Zcounter.com Free Counters
1